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The
Sublime Porte and Ottoman Government
Unlike
previous empires formed by nomadic peoples, the Ottomans were able
to administer and govern a widespread empire of diverse populations
for hundreds of years thanks to a combination of a well trained
civil service and a disciplined army, where soldiers served as policemen
in times of peace and laws based on the sacred laws of Islam. There
was surprisingly little civil disobedience, even in many parts
of the empire they administered were of a different race and religion,
with exception of the Shias.
Until
the Kafes or Cage was started by Ahmed I, Ottoman princes would
go to a distant province (not to close to Instanbul, least they
try to raise an army and take it for themselves) to govern and learn statecraft after the ceremony
of circumcision around age 14. Upon the death of the old sultan,
the new sultan would sit on the throne and the title for the reign
would be given and a distinctive tughra (monogram) designed. These
were used on coins and royal documents. The new sultan would journey
to the tomb of Eyyub, a companion of the Prophet and symbolically
gird the sword of Osman ( Taklide-Seif).
After Semim I, the sultan was the Caliphate-the supreme Islamic
religious leader and the political and military chief.
coat
of arms of the Ottoman Empire
After
the Devshimirme (levy
of Christian boys) those selected for civil service went through
a rigorous training, learning Turkish,reading Arabic,literature,poetry,law,history
and religion. As the Devshimirme
system gradually came to
an end in the mid 17th century, a system of patronage replaced it
and the positons were usually filled by the sons of administrators.Each
boy was also taught a craft or trade, even the sultans themselves
did this. Mehmed II was a master gardener, Selim I was a goldsmith.They
were also were trained in the military arts, the use of weapons,
strategy and horsemanship. They were promoted according to merit.
Mehmed II, after his conquest of the Byzantines in 1453, wanted
a non-hereditary ruling class. At 25 they graduated and went out
to be provincial administrators - sanjakbeyi
or beylerbeyi.Those
that proved their capacity would return to the palace to higher
positions. The head of the civil service was the Grand Vizer. The
governor of a province held great military and political power,
troops rallied to his standard in time of war and could decide the
outcome of a civil war with their armies .
The
administration of the empire was closely linked to the military.
It was divided up into two halves, Anatolia and Rumeli and controlled
by a governor-general, a beylerbey. These were subdivided into sanjaks
(districts) controlled by
military governors (sanjak
beys). the provinces were
also divided into military fiefs timar
and zeamet.These
were for the use of the cavalry (sipahis).These
fiefs were not hereditary, only a small part would go to the holders
son. They had to be earned on military merit. the sipahi were responsible
to collect revenues from the raya
(peasants) on their fief.
Most
of the agricultural land belonged to the state. The Ottomans tried
to keep local forms of sef government intact, like the ancient Persians.
The did not try to forcibly convert others to Islam and collected
a tax for allowing non-belivers of Islam to practice their faith,
which became an importance source of revenue. Christian and
Jews were organized into millets based on their faith .The
millets were self governing communities with their own laws, since
Sharia law could not be expected to apply . Sumptuary laws
were enforced in the empire and each group had distintive clothing.
Greeks wore black trousers, Jews blue trousers, Armenians violet
trousers and Turks red trousers. Most trades had a guild with a
specific dress as well. The leaders of the millets were
reponsible for their behavior and collecting taxes.
The
four 'pillars of empire' of the civil service was the Grand Vizer,the
kadi-askers,
judges of the army,defterdars,
who were the four treasurers of the empire and the nishanjis,
the secretaries of state.
Officals often carried the title of Pasha, meaning 'the Sultan's
foot.' Reflecting their nomadic past, the Grand Vizer displayed
five horse tail standard.
The
legal system and religious posts were held by Turks. The legal
system derived from four sources;the Sharis, sacred Islamic Law;
the Kanuns,written decrees of the sultan, the Adet, established
custom and the Urf - the will of the reigning sovereign.
Religious
leaders began their education in the medrese,colleges and schools
attached to larger mosques. When students finished their training
they were eligible to become judges (cadi)
the
highest position was the Mufti of Istanbul. Each region had a cadi
to enforce Muslim law. He was responsible for
deciding if a proposed war was holy, that the sultan's Kanun were
in line with Muslim law. The swift and sometimes sever punishments
of the law lead to a low crime rate in the empire.As the empire
declined, judges became more avaristic, imposing fines and taking
bribes. More rowers were needed for the galleys, and many criminals
were sent to serve there even for petty crimes. It was possible
to submit a petition to the sultan, like the emperors of the Roman
Empire .
The
Sublime Porte, where the government of the sultan, the divan, met. It
got its name from the gate to the headquarters of the Grand Vizier in
Topkapi Palace in Istanbul. Though the sultan was the supreme ruler, he
had a number of advisors
and ministers. The most powerful of these were the viziers of the
Divan, led by the Grand Vizier. The Divan was a council where the
viziers met and debated
the politics of the empire. It was the Grand Vizier's duty to inform
the sultan of the opinion of the divan.Despite important decisions
usually being made by the Divan, ultimate authority always rested with
the sultan.The Divan, in the early years of the Ottomans, was composed
of the elders of the tribe. Its composition was later modified to
include military officers and
local elites . These
individuals became known as viziers. Later still, beginning in the year
1320, a Grand Vizier (Sadrazam) was appointed in order to assume certain of the sultan's responsibilities.
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